Soil greenhouse gas balance, yield, and profit in intensively fertilized vegetable farms on an Andosol soil in Leyte, Philippines
Doctoral thesis
Date of Examination:2023-01-24
Date of issue:2023-02-10
Advisor:Dr. Marife Corre
Referee:Dr. Marife Corre
Referee:Prof. Dr. Carola Paul
Files in this item
Name:PhD thesis_CMOQuiñones_26 Jan 2023_eDISS.pdf
Size:6.75Mb
Format:PDF
Abstract
English
The vegetable industry is a vital sector in the Philippines’ agriculture, providing a significant contribution to the country’s total agricultural production and its overall economy. Vegetable farms in the Philippines are typically fragmented, small-scaled, and established in newly cleared forests with highly fertile soils. Increases in production and area are parallel with the increasing occurrences of forest conversion to vegetable farms. On top of deforestation, farmers practice high fertilization rates, successive cropping periods, deep soil tillage, and unregulated pest control applications. Despite various intensive cultivation practices implementation, average yield remains below optimum while high crop production costs penalize vegetable growers. Moreover, patterns of soil greenhouse gas (GHG; N2O, CH4, and CO2) fluxes that cover various crop production systems in the Philippines are less studied. To date, neither an investigation on field-based measurements of soil GHG fluxes nor an evaluation of vegetable yield response and farm-gate profit in intensively fertilized vegetable farms, has been undertaken. This research project aimed to (1) quantify and assess the soil GHG patterns in the secondary forest and in smallholder vegetable farms, (2) estimate the GHG budget of the latter land use, and (3) evaluate the optimum limits of plant-available nutrients, fertilization rates, vegetable yield response, and also the farm-gate profit following long-term intensive fertilization in vegetable farms. In addressing the abovementioned objectives, we performed our study on an Andosol soil in Cabintan, Leyte, Philippines. Nine spatially independent forest plots (each 64 m2) were established and 10 vegetable farms (≤ 0.30 ha) that covered the typical cultivation practices in the area were studied. These replicates have the same geology and climatic conditions. The secondary forest has tree vegetation that belongs to the families of old dipterocarp forest, while the studied vegetable farms cultivated cabbages and solanaceous vegetables during cropping periods. These farms practiced high fertilizer and pesticide application rates, introduced deep plowing during land preparations to create cultivation zones plant row and inter-row, and abstained from soil fallow in place for two to three cropping periods in a year. The vegetables produced in the study area catered to the demands not only in the Leyte province but also in adjacent islands, including the northern and southern provinces. To address our first objective, we assessed the soil GHG fluxes and controlling variables (mineral N: NH4+ and NO3–, water-filled pore space (WFPS), and soil temperature) in the studied vegetable farms (current land use) and compared these with that in the secondary forest (reference land use). Monthly measurements of soil GHG fluxes in the top 0.05 m were carried out using vented static chambers from May 2018 to May 2019. We also determined the stocks of mineral N and dissolved organic N in the 1-m soil depth of the current land use and the change of soil organic carbon (SOC) stock arising from land-use conversion as supporting information for the patterns of soil GHG fluxes. Both land uses consistently emitted soil N2O, consumed soil CH4, and released soil CO2; these soil GHG fluxes were overall significantly higher in the vegetable farms than in the secondary forest. The increase in soil N2O emissions from the farms reflected the application of fertilizers, particularly in plant rows, whereby the availability of mineral N as substrates stimulated soil N2O emissions. Furthermore, the substantial accumulation of mineral N down to 1-m soil depth supported the large soil N2O emissions. In terms of CH4 fluxes, the increasing NO3– levels in the plant row possibly dampened CH4 production, thereby promoting the CH4 uptake in vegetable farms but at a reduced rate relative to the forest. This reduction was also ascribed to increased bulk density in the inter-row, which inhibited the diffusion of atmospheric CH4 into the soil pronouncedly during the wet season and simultaneously reduced methanotrophic activity. Soil CO2 in both land uses was mainly controlled by the WFPS, while microbial decomposition largely influenced the emissions from the vegetable farms. For our second objective, we estimated the GHG budget of our studied vegetable farms by incorporating the net primary production (NPP), net ecosystem C exchange (NEE), and the net ecosystem productivity (NEP) in the calculation of its global warming potential (GWP). NPP was approximated using the harvest indices and root:shoot ratios of the vegetables, while NEE covered both the C output as represented by heterotrophic respiration from the farms’ inter-row due to the absence of plant roots in this cultivation zone and the C input from NPP and chicken manure, and NEP accounted the C export from the vegetable harvested yield. Heterotrophic respiration has an overriding effect over the combined C inputs from NPP and chicken manure, which in turn, contributed primarily to the NEE in farms. The latter and the overall GWP have indicated the vegetable farms as net soil CO2 source. The theme which covered the first and second objectives, with a corresponding title ‘Soil greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical vegetable farms, using forest as a reference’, is now accepted for publication in the Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems Journal (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-022-10222-4). For our final objective, we evaluated the optimum limits for plant-available N, fertilization rates P and K, vegetable harvested yield, N response efficiency (NRE) and partial factor productivity from applied fertilizer P (PFPP) and K (PFPK). We additionally ascertained the farm-gate profit of the studied vegetable farms which has been under long-term intensive fertilization. The optimum plant-available N corresponded to the optimum harvested yield and NRE from cultivating Chinese cabbage, while optimum rates of P and K produced the optimum harvested yield, PFPP, and PFPK from cultivating eggplant and chili pepper. Beyond the optimum limits of plant-available N and fertilization rates of P and K, harvested yield did not increase proportionally and additional fertilizer input only disposed monetary losses. Although the highest NRE was attained from the Chinese cabbage, cropping periods for solanaceous vegetables (tomato, sweet pepper, eggplant, and chili pepper) delivered a higher farm-gate profit, which suggested that profit was possibly driven by the vegetables’ market value. A higher farm-gate profit was also in agreement with the highest PFPP and PFPK from solanaceous vegetables compared with the cabbages, which implied that the increase in profit was dictated by higher harvested yield combined with reduced P and K fertilization inputs. The manuscript of this theme will be submitted for publication to the Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. The findings of this research project showed that vegetable production system on an Andosol soil in Leyte, Philippines, also possibly on other soil types throughout the entire country, is heavily fertilized. This agricultural activity, alongside more intensive management practices will continue to drive deforestation on remaining intact forests, release significant emissions of soil N2O and CO2, contribute to water quality contamination, incur monetary losses from fertilizer costs, and lead to serious soil degradation. To offset these drawbacks, there is a need for knowledge support for vegetable farmers on sustainable cultivation practices, which may include promotion of organic matter storage, introduction of fallow periods, and adherence to optimum limits of fertilization rates. The employment of these practices should be incentivized and considered as an integral strategy in the policy-making decisions, and for mitigation approaches in reducing soil GHG fluxes, minimizing expenditures on fertilizer costs, while optimizing farm-gate profit.
Keywords: Andosol soil; Soil nutrient stocks; Philippine agriculture; Greenhouse gas budget; Soil N2O, CH4, and CO2 fluxes; Soil organic carbon; Vegetable yield response; Optimum N-P-K fertilization rates; Cost-benefit analysis