Modelling the evolution of small bipolar regions on the Sun
by Bernhard Hofer
Date of Examination:2022-11-17
Date of issue:2023-10-23
Advisor:Dr. Natalie A. Krivova
Referee:Prof. Dr. Stefan Dreizler
Referee:Dr. Natalie A. Krivova
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Abstract
English
Solar activity affects life on Earth in various ways, from geomagnetic storms to the terrestrial climate. The driver of solar activity is the solar magnetic field, which manifests itself in the form of small and large-scale magnetic features emerging on the solar surface. The largest features are sunspots. Sunspots are bipolar magnetic regions (BMRs) bearing strong magnetic fields. They form in active regions (ARs) and have been observed since antiquity. Much less is known about the emergence and evolution of small, spotless BMRs. Due to their smaller sizes and weaker magnetic fields, they are difficult to observe. At the same time, due to being much more numerous, they have been proposed to influence the overall magnetic flux budget and the secular variability of the Sun’s magnetic flux. The aim of this thesis is to study the influence of small BMRs on the evolution of the solar magnetic field. Being the longest direct observation of solar activity, models of long term solar variability typically rely on the sunspot number record. Such sunspot driven models however cannot realistically estimate the amount of small BMRs emerging on the solar surface at low activity. Particularly challenging are extended periods of sunspot absence, such as the Maunder minimum. We start by developing a new description of emergence rates of the small BMRs in Chap. 2. The model describes the emergence of all BMRs by a single power-law size distribution, in agreement with modern observations. The power-law exponent varies with solar activity, quantified by the sunspot number. With this new description, we ensure that small magnetic regions continue emerging even in the total absence of sunspots. We validate the emergence model by reconstructing the solar magnetic flux since 1610 from the sunspot number with a simple model of the evolution of the global magnetic field quantities, including the total and open magnetic flux, and find good agreement with modern observations and independent reconstructions, including the Maunder minimum. In Chap. 3, we then employ the proposed description of the BMR emergence to study the influence of small magnetic regions on the solar magnetic field in more detail. We simulate the evolution of the solar magnetic field with a surface flux transport model (SFTM), which allows modelling the evolution and decay of individual BMRs on the solar surface. Since the information on the spatial distribution of small regions is missing in the sunspot records, we derive empirical relationships describing the mean and the scatter of the emergence latitude and tilt angle of all BMRs. The scatter as well as the onset of emergence during the cycle depend on the size of the BMRs. From the sunspot number we then derive semi-synthetic BMR records since 1874, which we use as input to the surface flux transport simulation. We find a good agreement of the calculated magnetic flux, polar fields and toroidal flux loss since 1874 with modern observations and independent reconstructions. Small BMRs have a strong impact on the magnetic flux during solar minima, comparable to that of large BMRs with sunspots. For the polar field strength and toroidal flux loss, we find that small BMRs are even comparable to the contribution of large BMRs during solar maxima. Due to their high number, small BMRs have a stabilizing effect on the simulation, while most of the noise comes from large BMRs. We also validate and analyse the results of the surface flux transport simulations with an analytical study estimating the influence of small and large BMRs on the solar magnetic field. The analytical results fully support those obtained from the surface flux transport simulation. Our study highlights the importance of a realistic modelling of small BMRs in historic reconstructions of solar activity, especially during periods of low activity. The latter has important implications for estimates of the secular variability of solar irradiance. The impact of small BMRs on the polar fields and toroidal flux loss are crucial to understand the generation of poloidal magnetic field from the BMRs on the solar surface, which is important for solar dynamo studies.
Keywords: Sun: activity; Sun: heliosphere; Sun: magnetic fields; Sun: photosphere; solar-terrestrial relations; Sun: evolution