Maize Root Colonization by Trichoderma virens: Mechanisms of Defense against Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Implications for Multi-Trophic Interactions
Doctoral thesis
Date of Examination:2025-08-04
Date of issue:2025-08-19
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Michael Rostás
Referee:Prof. Dr. Marko Rohlfs
Referee:Dr. Christian Baden
Referee:Dr. Artemio Mendoza-Mendoza
Sponsor:The work was made possible with the support of a scholarship from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).
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Abstract
English
Summary Trichoderma spp. are widely recognized as root-colonizing biocontrol agents that enhance plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses while promoting growth. These fungi produce a diverse array of volatile and non-volatile metabolites that mediate interactions with plants, influencing both direct and indirect defense mechanisms. Trichoderma can enhance direct plant resistance against herbivores and modulate the emission of herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) that attract natural enemies. Previous studies have demonstrated that T. virens and its vir4 knockout mutant (deficient in sesquiterpene biosynthesis) differentially influence maize (Zea mays L.) root gene expression and specialized metabolites. Given these metabolic alterations, we hypothesized that fungal root colonization could have cascading effects on higher trophic levels. This dissertation investigates how T. virens and its vir4 mutant influence maize defense responses, focusing on volatile and non-volatile metabolites and phytohormonal signaling pathways, and their subsequent effects on tri-trophic interactions involving the herbivore Helicoverpa armigera and the predator Macrolophus pygmaeus. Additionally, we assess the bioactivity of T. virens-derived, sesquiterpenes-based metabolites on herbivore performance. Chapter 1 examines the impact of T. virens root colonization on H. armigera performance, as well as potential alterations in HIPV emissions and their ultimate influence on predator attraction in olfactometer assays. Our findings indicate that H. armigera larvae feeding on maize colonized by wild-type T. virens gained significantly less weight compared to those feeding on plants colonized by the vir4 mutant or uncolonized controls, suggesting that the vir4 gene cluster contributes to herbivore resistance. Although fungal colonization induced moderate changes in HIPV composition, total volatile emissions remained unaffected. Furthermore, in Y-tube olfactometer assays, M. pygmaeus displayed a strong preference for herbivore-damaged maize over undamaged plants, but fungal colonization had no significant impact on predator attraction. These results demonstrate that T. virens enhances maize's direct resistance against H. armigera while maintaining indirect defense mechanisms. Chapter 2 investigates the effects of fungal colonization on maize's non-volatile defense responses, including specialized and primary metabolites as well as phytohormonal signaling pathways. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis revealed that benzoxazinoids (BXDs), the predominant class of maize secondary metabolites involved in plant defense, as well as the phenolic compound chlorogenic acid, were primarily induced by herbivory, with minimal alterations due to fungal colonization. A similar trend was observed for phytohormones, with herbivory acting as the primary driver of hormonal changes. However, untargeted metabolomic profiling using LC-QTOF-MS/MS system identified distinct metabolic shifts in fungal-inoculated seedlings, particularly those colonized by the wild-type strain. Feeding damage by herbivore further augmented these metabolic changes. Similarly, primary metabolites were differentially affected by fungal colonization and herbivore feeding. These findings provide insights into our earlier observations of H. armigera larval significantly attenuated performance in the wild- type fungal-colonized seedlings which reinforces the role of T. virens vir4 gene in differentially regulating certain metabolic features in maize that led to the enhanced resistance against this herbivore. Chapter 3 is building on the findings from Chapter 2, which identified the T. virens vir4-derived sesquiterpene lactone heptelidic acid as a potential biomarker influencing fungal–plant–herbivore interactions and contributing to reduced herbivore performance. This chapter focuses on the extraction and purification of heptelidic acid and hydroheptelidic acid from wild-type T. virens and evaluates their larvicidal activity against H. armigera larvae. The results demonstrate that heptelidic acid significantly inhibited larval growth and exerted insecticidal effects at the tested concentrations. In contrast, hydroheptelidic acid exhibited limited larvicidal activity. These findings highlight the potential of T. virens-derived secondary metabolites as promising candidates for sustainable and eco-friendly pest management strategies targeting H. armigera. Overall, this dissertation deepens our understanding of how T. virens influences maize defensive chemistry and its broader impact within a multitrophic system. The findings highlight fungus-induced plant resistance mediated primarily by T. virens vir4 biosynthetic gene and underscore the key role of this plant-microbe symbiotic relationship in enhancing plant resistance, vitaly important in the context of sustainable crop protection. Our study further highlights the potential of T. virens as a source of vital bioactive secondary metabolites that could play a critical role in sustainable pest management of H. armigera.
Keywords: sesquiterpenes; Trichoderma virens; maize defense; volatile organic compounds (VOCs); Helicoverpa armigera; vir4 gene; untargeted metabolomics; GC–MS; LC–MS/MS, QQQ, QTOF; olfactometer; Macrolophus pygmaeus; phytohormones; benzoxazinoids; tri-trophic interactions; plant–microbe–insect interactions
