Diagnostische Leistungsfähigkeit nichtinvasiver Pränataltests zur Bestimmung fetaler Merkmale des Rh-Blutgruppensystems
Diagnostic Performance of Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing for the Determination of Fetal Rh Blood Group Genotyping
by Bjarne Maaßen
Date of Examination:2026-01-26
Date of issue:2026-01-06
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Tobias Legler
Referee:Prof. Dr. Tobias Legler
Referee:PD Dr. Gerd-Johannes Bauerschmitz
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Abstract
English
Over the past approximately 25 years, analysis of cell-free fetal DNA (cffDNA) from maternal plasma has enabled the non-invasive assessment of genetically determined fetal characteristics. Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) complements invasive procedures such as amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling, which are associated with a low but relevant risk of miscarriage, particularly in the prenatal detection of aneuploidies and fetal Rh blood group antigens. This approach is of particular clinical relevance in pregnancies complicated by maternal alloimmunization against Rh antigens, as antigen-positive fetuses are at risk of developing hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). The introduction of antenatal and postnatal anti-D immunoprophylaxis has led to a substantial reduction in anti-D alloimmunization rates. However, in the absence of prenatal knowledge of the fetal RhD status, all RhD-negative pregnant women historically received unselective anti-D prophylaxis, despite approximately 40% carrying an RhD-negative fetus. Prenatal determination of the fetal RhD status by NIPT enables a targeted anti-D prophylaxis strategy, limited to RhD-negative women carrying an RhD-positive fetus. Following an amendment of the German maternity guidelines, prenatal RhD determination was included in the statutory health insurance benefit catalogue in 2021. At that time, no commercially available test kit was capable of meeting the increased demand for prenatal RhD analyses. In a retrospective cohort, 707 pregnancies were evaluated by comparing NIPT results with postnatal serological typing of neonatal Rh antigens (RhD, C, c, and E). Prenatal results were confirmed in 185 cases; one false-positive RhD result and one false-negative result for the Rhc antigen were identified. The latter was detected upon repeat testing later in pregnancy, enabling close surveillance with middle cerebral artery Doppler ultrasound and anti-c antibody titer monitoring. In the prospective part of the study, fetal RhD status was determined by detection of RHD exons 5, 7, and 10 using the commercial FetoGnost-Kit-RhD following DNA extraction with the QIAsymphony SP system. Complete concordance with an established reference assay was observed in all 186 cases. In an extended cohort of 1,403 women aged 16–47 years (median: 31 years) sampled between gestational weeks 9 and 38 (median: 20 weeks), postnatal RhD phenotypes of the neonates were obtained by follow-up questionnaires. Of 1,696 total cases, NIPT-RhD yielded 1,589 conclusive results, comprising 998 RhD-positive and 591 RhD-negative findings. Based on 523 postnatal confirmations, sensitivity was 99.68% (95% CI: 98.21–99.94%, n = 313) and specificity was 99.05% (95% CI: 96.59–99.74%, n = 210). One false-negative result was potentially attributable to an extended sample transport time of seven days, while two false-positive results originated from the same analytical run, suggesting an increased likelihood of cross-contamination. Overall, the FetoGnost-Kit-RhD in combination with the QIAsymphony SP demonstrated high analytical precision and suitability for high-throughput prenatal RhD determination from gestational week 11+0 onward. No significant differences in diagnostic accuracy were observed across pregnancy trimesters. Samples obtained before gestational week 8 showed methodological limitations. Prolonged transport times were associated with significantly increased hemolysis rates, with 93.3% of hemolytic samples exhibiting transport durations exceeding five days, potentially contributing to false-negative results. A maximum transport time of five days is therefore recommended. Maternal or fetal RHD variants were identified in 1.2% of cases. Maternal RHD variants were reliably detected and allowed definitive fetal RhD classification in approximately two-thirds of cases based on exons absent in maternal DNA. Spike-in experiments suggested multiplex PCR as a robust approach in this context. Fetal RHD variants were also reliably identified; however, the applied methodology did not allow definitive prediction of RhD phenotype or immunogenicity. Consequently, anti-D prophylaxis is recommended when fetal RHD variants are detected. Attempts to sequence fetal RHD variants from maternal plasma using next-generation sequencing were unsuccessful. Plasma samples from pregnant women could be stored at 4 °C for up to seven days without adverse effects. For internal quality control and external proficiency testing, storage was feasible for at least 14 months at −20 °C and over 25 months at −80 °C.
Keywords: Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT); Cell-free fetal DNA (cffDNA); Cell-free DNA (cfDNA); Prenatal genetic testing; Prenatal screening; Molecular prenatal diagnostics; Rh blood group system; RhD; Fetal RhD genotyping; Prenatal RhD determination; RHD gene; RHD exon analysis; RHD variants; Rh antigens; RhC, Rhc, RhE; Anti-D immunoprophylaxis; Targeted anti-D prophylaxis; Maternal alloimmunization; Red cell alloantibodies; Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN); Fetomaternal hemorrhage; Transfusion medicine; Immunohematology; Diagnostic accuracy; Sensitivity and specificity; Clinical performance; Analytical performance; False-negative results; False-positive results; Quality assurance; Multiplex PCR; Real-time PCR; DNA extraction; Plasma samples; Preanalytical variables; Sample transport; Hemolysis; High-throughput testing; Pregnancy; Gestational age; First trimester; Second trimester; Third trimester; Prenatal care; Targeted screening; Clinical implementation; Screening strategy; Public health policy; Maternity guidelines