Tropical forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations: landscape-scale and inter-annual variability of soil greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes and the contribution of tree-stem emissions to the soil GHG budget in Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia
by Josephus Koks
Date of Examination:2019-12-12
Date of issue:2020-07-01
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Edzo Veldkamp
Referee:Prof. Dr. Alexander Knohl
Referee:Prof. Dr. Heinz Flessa
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Abstract
English
Deforestation rates have rapidly increased over the last two decades in Sumatra, Indonesia, where large areas of lowland rainforest have now been converted into the monoculture plantation types of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). The high global demand for palm oil and latex is continuously pushing expansion of this forest-to- plantation conversion and might even increase in the next decades. Land-use conversion is known to influence the soil-atmosphere exchange of the climate-relevant greenhouse gases (GHG) nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Despite the extensive land-use conversion in Sumatra, long-term studies quantifying soil GHG fluxes from these land-use types are sparse. The few studies on soil GHG fluxes with year-round measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations on mineral soils in Sumatra have limitations for spatial and temporal extrapolations, as they were mainly conducted on well-drained sites of the landscape and did not cover the spatial heterogeneity (e.g. topography-driven redistribution of water and solutes) that influences soil GHG emission and uptake processes, and neither accounted for inter-annual variation in GHG fluxes related to different precipitation quantities. Furthermore, recent studies have revealed plant-mediated transport of GHG can contribute substantially to the total (soil + plant) GHG fluxes from an ecosystem. Stem- emitted GHG are currently largely unquantified in a majority of ecosystems and have never been measured in Sumatra. The present thesis tries to fill these gaps by accounting for 1) landscape-heterogeneity-driven variability in soil GHG fluxes by including riparian areas: zones between well-drained sites and lower located positions, under strong influence of water, known to be hotspots of biogeochemical processes; 2) temporal variability in soil GHG fluxes by measuring another annual cycle of GHG fluxes from the same plots measured four years ago; and 3) the contributions of stem GHG emissions to total (soil + stem) GHG fluxes. We conducted our study in Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia, a region subject to large forest conversion. We have measured N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes from soils and stems in lowland forest (reference land use), as well as in smallholder oil palm and rubber plantations (conversion land uses). Fluxes were measured with soil and stem chambers between March 2017 – March 2018. The first study aimed to quantify N2O and CH4 fluxes from stems and N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes from soils in oil palm plantations located on riparian areas, and to assess their controlling factors. Annual stem N2O and CH4 fluxes were (g ha-1 yr-1; mean ± SE) 12 ± 4 and 99 ± 46, respectively, and soil N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes (kg ha-1 yr-1; mean ± SE) were 3.4 ± 0.3, 0.7 ± 0.1 and 11092 ± 264, respectively. Stems contributed 3.0 – 14.7 % of the total (soil + stem) GHG fluxes. Stem GHG fluxes correlated with water-filled pore space (WFPS), soil- air GHG concentrations and vapor pressure deficit, which suggested stem-emitted GHG were soil-borne. Soil N2O fluxes correlated with NO3- content, whereas soil CH4 fluxes correlated with soil moisture content, and soil CO2 fluxes displayed an exponential relationship with soil moisture content. This study showed that at riparian areas, the combination of high mineral N content and high WFPS can lead to relatively high stem and soil N2O emissions, whereas a high WFPS can lead to net soil CH4 emissions. The second study aimed to quantify N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes of soils and N2O and CH4 fluxes from stems from forest and rubber plantations located on riparian areas, to assess their controlling factors and to determine the effect of land-use change. Net soil N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes (kg ha-1 yr-1; mean ± SE) in forest were 1.1 ± 0.5, 1.7 ± 1.2 and 11700 ± 500, respectively, and in rubber plantations 0.8 ± 0.3, -0.5 ± 0.1 and 12700 ± 1300, respectively, and net fluxes did not differ between land uses (P ≥ 0.12). Annual stem N2O and CH4 fluxes in the forest were (g ha-1 yr-1; mean ± SE) 4 ± 1 and 150 ± 8, respectively, and 5 ± 1 and 110 ± 4 in the rubber plantations, respectively, and did not differ between land uses either (P ≥ 0.24). The WFPS was the most important factor controlling N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes from forest and rubber plantations on riparian sites, which might have overruled the influence of variability in soil characteristics due to land-use change, and that stems contributed significantly to the total (soil + stem) GHG fluxes. The third study aimed to quantify inter-annual variation in soil N2O, CH4, and CO2 fluxes as a result of inter-annual changes in precipitation and management practices. In 2017/2018, we measured one year of soil N2O, CH4 and CO2 fluxes from forest, oil palm and rubber plantations across two landscapes (clay and loam Acrisol soils) by soil chambers and compared these with measurements at the same locations in 2012/2013. In general, annual soil N2O and CH4 fluxes did not show differences between years, whereas annual soil CO2 fluxes were lower in 2017 than in 2013 for most land uses across both landscapes. A decreased WFPS in 2017 as a result of a decrease in precipitation of 30 % was the main driver of these differences, showing that changes in annual precipitation can lead to changes in soil-emitted GHG. Our studies showed 1) that neglecting increased soil GHG fluxes from riparian areas, as well as contributions of stems, might lead to significant underestimation in GHG fluxes, 2) that soil GHG fluxes might vary inter-annually, and 3) that the effects of land-use change on GHG fluxes can be more pronounced at riparian areas. Therefore, it is important to include the effect of spatial and temporal variation of GHG-flux controlling factors on soil and stem GHG fluxes, as well as to cover the different components involved on ecosystem-level (soils and stems) in future GHG flux studies, as it would provide us more specific information for improved predictions in global atmospheric GHG concentrations.
Keywords: Greenhouse; Methane; Carbon dioxide; Nitrous oxide; Soil; Land use change; Indonesia; Oil palm; Rubber