Environmental and maternal effects on infant development in wild Verreaux´s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)
by Hasiniavo Santatriniaina Malalaharivony
Date of Examination:2021-06-17
Date of issue:2021-12-23
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kappeler
Referee:Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kappeler
Referee:Dr. Oliver Schülke
Referee:Dr. Claudia Fichtel
Referee:Prof. Dr. Eckhard W. Heymann
Referee:Prof. Dr. Julia Ostner
Referee:Dr. Tanya Behne
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Description:PhD Thesis Dissertation, "Environmental and maternal effects on infant development in wild Verreaux´s sifaka"
Abstract
English
Organisms’ life cycles vary tremendously between and within species leading to differences in life histories. Early development plays an important role in the life trajectory of an individual and shapes its entire life. Acceleration or delay of the developmental schedule can influence the age at maturation and reproduction and even the fitness of an organism. Whereas the factors, which could influence the early development of an individual have been well documented, little is known about the developmental milestones and the mechanisms that link environmental stressors and maternal stress to infant physical and behavioral development and infant early survival. Most of the studies are from captive populations under experimental conditions. In this study, I contribute new information to this subject by studying the effects of environmental stressors and maternal stress on infant development in a wild lemur species, Verreaux’s sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi). These group-living primates give birth to a single infant per year, which is characterized by slow development and late maturity compared to other lemur species. They inhabit the dry forest of south-western Madagascar where they are exposed to pronounced seasonal changes in food availability, rainfall, and temperatures. Allomaternal care is rare in this species, hence mothers are the primary caregivers and invest more in the infant. Infant mortality is high and mostly occurs during the first year of life. In this study, I explored growth pattern and developmental milestones, i.e. the age at the first occurrence of each behavior such as foraging, solitary play, social play, grooming, and independent locomotion and assessed the influence of infant’s age and sex, mother’s age and food availability on these developmental processes in 16 infants in Kirindy forest. I also examined the influence of seasonality as well as the impact of previous reproduction on maternal stress (glucocorticoid concentration, GCc) and investment to the infants, and their potential influence on infants’ physical and behavioral developments and their early survival. I found strong inter-individual variation in the developmental milestones of the infants. Motor skills emerged earlier than social skills and foraging occurred at an early age compared to other lemur species. Independent locomotion, however, occurred comparably late, indicating the complexities of the species’ socio-ecological environment. The results of this study also show sex differences in infants’ early growth rates and grooming activities. Females grew faster whereas males spent time grooming conspecifics, reflecting Verreaux’s sifakas’ reproductive strategies and social organization. Neither mothers’ age nor food availability significantly influenced infants' physical and behavioral development. However, the here found inter-individual differences in infants' development reflected the variation of the received investment which are related to maternal condition and their socio-ecological environment. Low rainfall and previous reproduction were associated with increased maternal GC levels, which in turn resulted in a decrease of maternal investment in terms of infant carrying. This indicates that mothers in this species face strong energetic challenges and carry high costs of reproduction. Elevated maternal GC levels strongly influenced infant behavioral and physical development. Although mothers with higher GC levels exhibited lower maternal investment, their infants appeared to be more developed, i.e. played and foraged more. Infants that were less carried more likely survived the first year of their life. The results of this study show the impact of environmental stressors on maternal condition and reflect the adaptive responses of infant Verreaux’s sifakas to early maternal stress. In conclusion, the early development of the infants seems to be adjusted to their socio-ecological environment and their future life strategies. The early physical and social development of males and females infant Verreaux’s sifakas reflected their future reproductive strategies and social organization. Infant development is strongly shaped by maternal condition and investment, which is in turn influenced by environmental changes. The cost of reproduction is very high for mothers resulting in elevated GC levels and reduced maternal investment. Elevated maternal stress appears to be adaptive for the infants during their first year of life. More studies on early development conducted in natural environment and especially in lemurs are needed to improve our understanding of the lemurs’ life history strategies.
Keywords: infant development, maternal care, developmental milestones, Propithecus, life history; Glucocorticoid concentrations, Maternal stress, Infant development, Environmental stressors, Verreaux’s sifaka