Farmer-herder relations in Ghana: interplay of environmental change, conflict, cooperation and social networks
by Kaderi Noagah Bukari
Date of Examination:2016-09-22
Date of issue:2017-08-30
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Schareika
Referee:Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Schareika
Referee:Prof. Dr. Jürgen Scheffran
Referee:Dr. Papa Sow
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Abstract
English
Farmer-herder relations and interactions are not new in West Africa. They have existed for a long time and have been the subject of scholarship. These relations are presented as marked by conflict, cooperation and complementarity. What is new, however, are widespread reports of the increase in violent farmer-herder conflicts in many parts of Ghana. Structural and neo-Malthusian/environmental scarcity theories have tended to dominate interpretations of these violent conflicts. These interpretations focus on scarce resources and environmental change, increased herder migrations from the Sahel, increased crop destruction, cattle rustling and armed robbery as drivers of farmer-herder violence. Interestingly, despite these violent conflictive relations in Ghana, one can find cooperation and resource sharing as well as the building of social ties/networks between farmers and herders. However, several studies, discussions and discourse have not actually examined what determines and drives farmer-herder relations, be it conflict or cooperation. Questions remain as to what actually constitutes farmer-herder relations. What processes shape and determine a conflictual or cooperative relation between farmers and herders? How do we explain similar instances where some farmers and herders are engaged in violent conflicts whilst others co-exist and cooperate? What roles do environmental change and resource scarcity play in shaping farmer-herder relations? What social networks/ties exist between farmers and herders and how do these networks influence conflict and/or cooperation between them? This study, therefore, examines these key questions and issues within the context of farmer-herder relations in Ghana. A number of theories helped to contextualise the study in order to understand the processes and underlying and mediating factors in farmer-herder relations. Theoretically, therefore, the study adopts a processual approach in studying the escalation of farmer-herder conflicts; a conceptualisation of cultural neighbourhood is used to study cooperative relations; and social network analysis is used to see the influence/effect of social ties in enhancing conflictual and/or cooperative relations between farmers and herders. A qualitative approach was used in the data collection and analysis of the study. These methods included extended case studies, comparative case studies, interviews, social network analysis and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The study was conducted in Agogo (southern Ghana) and Gushiegu (northern Ghana), with follow-up studies in Karaga, Sekyere Kumawu, Konongo, as well as in Accra, Kumasi and Tamale. Respondents comprised local farmers, Fulani herders, cattle owners, inhabitants of the communities, chiefs and opinion leaders/elders and government officials. The study shows that farmer-herder relations, whether conflictual or cooperative in terms of resource access and use, are multi-dimensional, complex and develop through several processes. These include a long history of interaction and contact; herder migrations, long-time settlements among local people and the nature and type of social networks that exist between them. The study contextualises farmers and herders as cultural neighbours who share cross-cutting ties, build everyday peace and cooperate even in the midst of violent conflicts. The two equally exchange and share natural resources (water, land, pasture), trade and build personal relationships (friendships, cattle entrustment and social solidarity). Further, reducing farmer-herder conflicts to just structural factors and to environmental/climate change and resource scarcity, from the perspectives of both the environmental scarcity/security school and that of farmer-herder perceptions, is far more complex than assumed. Rather, a plethora of political, historical, social and ecological factors drives violent conflict escalation. In addition, violent conflict escalation develops through a process, social networks and a constellation of diverse actors who play significant roles in their escalation. The study recommends that the complexity of farmer-herder relations calls for a harnessing of issues that are common to cooperation and cross-cutting ties between local farmers and herders. Theoretically, the study questions simplistic and general conceptualisations of farmer-herder relations and calls for extended case studies and multi-theoretical studies of farmer-herder relations. Thus, better comprehension and analysis of the totality of farmer-herder relations are needed. Besides, a Bottom-up Peace Approach from the local level from the perspective of local peoples, instead of the top-down national government approach, is needed to address violent farmer-herder confrontations. Moreover, clear national and local policies are required to deal with issues of land use and access, cattle rearing and pastoralism in general. Issues regarding the unavailability of accurate data on pastoralists’ migration trends, conflict, census data of Fulani pastoralists, land size required for both farming and cattle keeping and climatic data must also be addressed.
Keywords: Farmers; Fulani Herders; Ghana; Conflicts; Cooperation; Environmental Change; Land; Resources; Social Networks