Evolution of the Orthoptera: systematic placement among insects, internal phylogeny and the origin of bioacoustics
by Fanny Leubner
Date of Examination:2017-07-07
Date of issue:2017-09-20
Advisor:Dr. Sven Bradler
Referee:Dr. Sven Bradler
Referee:Prof. Dr. Rainer Willmann
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Abstract
English
The present thesis provides (1) a detailed study of the yet neglected skeletomuscular complex of the thorax in Orthoptera, (2) a comparative study of the morphological modifications associated with secondary winglessness in polyneopteran lineages and Ensifera in particular, (3) a phylogenetic reconstruction of ensiferan relationships based on characters of the thoracic skeleton and musculature, and in light of the aforementioned results (4) a reinterpretation of the evolutionary origin of bioacoustics within Ensifera. The thoracic skeletomuscular complex of 23 orthopteran species was studied in detail, including representatives of all major ensiferan lineages. This comprehensive comparative approach served as a basis for a thorough reconstruction of the potential ground pattern of the orthopteran thoracic skeleton and musculature. Both skeletal and muscular morphology of the thorax show major differences between the two basal orthopteran sublineages Caelifera (short-horned grasshoppers) and Ensifera (long-horned grasshoppers). Secondary winglessness, a widespread phenomenon among pterygote insects, largely affects the thoracic anatomy, mainly the skeletal structures and the muscular system. By comparing the thoracic morphology of various wingless representatives of Polyneoptera, it can be demonstrated that anatomical adaptations towards flightlessness, especially regarding the flight musculature, are highly homogenous within major insect lineages, viz. Ensifera, Caelifera, and the majority of stick and leaf insects (Euphasmatodea). However, specific adaptations differ strikingly between these major lineages indicating different roles and functions of these muscles after wing loss. The cladistic analysis of 141 thoracic characters for the examined orthopterans and outgroup representatives of all major polyneopteran lineages, Holometabola, Paraneoptera and Palaeoptera yielded a single most parsimonious phylogenetic tree. Within Polyneoptera that were recovered as monophyletic a close relationship of Orthoptera to a clade comprising Xenonomia (Grylloblattodea + Mantophasmatodea), Dictyoptera, and Phasmatodea is supported. Ensifera is divided into two major lineages: a grylloid clade (crickets and mole crickets) and a tettigonioid clade (bush-crickets and relatives). Tettigoniidae is found to be the sister taxon of a clade comprising Gryllacrididae, Schizodactylidae, Stenopelmatidae, Rhaphidophoridae, Prophalangopsidae, and Anostostomatidae. The monophyly of the latter clade is supported by a pronounced posterior profurcal arm (convergent in Grylloblattodea) and a paired posterior processus of the stalked prospina (with a reversal assumed for Prophalangopsidae). Additional key findings on internal ensiferan relationships and their resulting interpretation for the evolution of bioacoustics are briefly outlined in the following: (1) Prophalangopsidae is not forming the sister group to Tettigoniidae. The presence of a tegminal stridulatory apparatus as an intraspecific communicational form must have evolved independently in at least three lineages: Gryllidae + Gryllotalpidae, Tettigoniidae, and Prophalangopsidae. (2) Rhaphidophoridae is not forming the sister group to the remaining tettigonioid lineages, instead a close relationship to Prophalangopsidae, Anostostomatidae and Stenopelmatidae is proposed based on the presence of a unique triramous metafurca in these taxa. The previous hypothesis of a basal position of Rhaphidophoridae within the tettigonioid clade supported a scenario of a non-stridulating and non-hearing ensiferan ancestor, and indicated a step-wise evolution of the hearing organs and intraspecific stridulatory mechanisms towards singing and hearing ensiferans such as katydids. Based on the novel hypothesis, the structure of the rhaphidophorid hearing organ bearing no crista acustica must instead be a consequence of secondary simplification. (3) Tettigoniidae, Prophalangopsidae and Anostostomatidae do not form a monophylum. The occurrence of acoustic intraspecific communication, either in form of tegminal or femoro-abdominal stridulation, does therefore not represent a plesiomorphic condition for each of these three taxa, but rather constitutes an independently evolved new (apomorphic) condition for or within each lineage. In summary, the present thesis increases the knowledge on the morphology of a complex anatomical character system. This thesis represents an essential step towards a deeper understanding of the evolution of thoracic characters and related functional adaptations within insects, and Polyneoptera and Orthoptera in particular. Despite the fact that studies analyzing morphological data are nowadays mainly replaced by those providing robust molecular phylogenetic hypotheses, morphological research remains an important instrument to make evolution more comprehensible and explains form and function of morphological transformations in evolutionary history.
Keywords: Orthoptera; Ensifera; Caelifera; thorax; morphology; skeleton and musculature; acoustic communication; cladistics; grasshoppers and allies; crickets, katydids and allies