Fundamental data and conceptual framework for the exploration of geothermal resources in the Himalaya-Karakoram Orogenic belt, northern Pakistan
Doctoral thesis
Date of Examination:2024-01-19
Date of issue:2024-04-08
Advisor:Prof. Dr. Jonas Kley
Referee:Prof. Dr. Jonas Kley
Referee:Prof. Dr. Mumtaz Muhammad Shah
Sponsor:German Academic Exchange Service
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Abstract
English
Northern Pakistan lies within the collision zone of the Indian and Asian plates comprising Himalaya, Kohistan, and Karakoram, with numerous hot springs associated with the Himalayan Geothermal Belt, extending 3000 km along the Himalayas. The magnitude of terrestrial heat flow and the characteristics of potential heat sources for the present geothermal systems in this belt are of great importance and interest in geoscientific disciplines. The geothermal exploration in this remote region is limited to a two-decade-old geochemical analysis of hot springs. At the same time, the rugged topography, limited road infrastructure, and harsh climate hinder any prospect of large-scale exploration. Despite the indication of high surface heat flow in neighboring Indian Kashmir, the absence of reliable geophysical data and petrophysical parameters prevents the establishment of the thermal state of the lithosphere, which is a prerequisite for geothermal modeling and evaluation. Moreover, high radiogenic heat production (RHP) and fast exhumation of the basement crystalline complexes and granitoid batholiths are assumed to contribute significantly to the upper crust’s heat flow. The focus of the thesis was to understand and assess the geothermal resources of the Himalaya-Karakoram region of Pakistan on a reconnaissance scale and provide the baseline information and zones of interest as potential targets for future detailed exploration. To this end, it concentrated on the following objectives: 1) Identifying the areas with high lineament density, thermal anomalies, and hydrothermal alteration associated with active and paleo-geothermal zones. 2) Estimating the magnitude and variation of radiogenic heat production in different lithological units and understanding its role and contribution to overall heat flow and local geothermal systems. 3) Petrological, geochemical, and petrophysical characterization of outcrop analogs of subsurface reservoirs. 4) Creation of conceptual geological and geothermal models for understanding the geothermal play-types in the area and propose potential development scenarios. A multi-method and multi-scale approach is followed, which started from a regional level large-scale study through remote sensing, geological mapping, and literature review to analyze and understand the tectonic mechanism and structural features, surface temperature patterns, and hydrothermal alterations. A portable gamma spectrometer was used to measure radioelement concentration on the ground. Lab analysis (XRD, optical and cathodoluminescence microscopy, XRF, ICP-MS) of altered and unaltered samples were carried out to determine the mineralogical, petrological, geochemical, and petrophysical properties. The remote sensing results confirmed the presence of high lineament density, thermal anomalies, and hydrothermal alteration in the regions close to hot springs and suture zones. The hydrothermal alteration results from remote sensing, later confirmed by XRD analysis, provided base information for subsequent field investigation. The radiogenic heat production in the Nanga Parbat Massif – NPM (with > 4 μWm-3) is classified as high heat-producing, the Karakoram batholith – KB (with 2 – 4 μWm-3) as moderately heat-producing, and the Kohistan-Ladakh batholith – KLB (with < 2 μWm-3) as low heat producing. Geochemical results indicate that the gneisses and granites of the NPM are mostly peraluminous alkaline S-type, enriched in REEs and radioactive elements, indicating partial melting and high fractionation. The granitoids of the KB are syenitic to granitic in composition, with the presence of REE-rich allanites in syenite. The KLB granitoids are calc-alkaline I-type and show depletion of REEs and radiogenic elements. Low matrix porosities (0.6 – 3.5%) and higher fault zone alteration indicate hydrothermal fluids’ feedback effect on the host rocks via alteration-induced permeability. The crustal-scale thermal models revealed that the surface radiogenic heat production cannot be extrapolated to mid-crustal depth in the case of a subducting or under-thrusting layer. This layer’s magnitude of heat production and thickness mainly control surface heat flow. Exhumation transports hot rocks to the surface, resulting in higher surface heat flow, even in an upper crust with low RHP. However, the lateral influence of exhumation is limited compared to the RHP. The shape of the near-surface isotherms is greatly influenced by topography, which gets expanded under mountains and compressed in valleys. A conceptual model explaining the genetic mechanism for current hot springs considers increased concentrations of radiogenic elements and high exhumation for increasing the geothermal gradient, which is accessed by meteoric waters via deep faults. Finally, combining multi-scale and multi-method studies, the Nanga Parbat region, central Karakoram, and eastern Karakoram are potential geothermal targets identified for detailed and site-specific investigations. This thesis suggests the presence of hydrothermal and hot-dry rock geothermal play types in these identified areas. The findings presented in this work provide new key data for understanding of the region’s geothermal regime on a larger scale and are fundamental for future geothermal exploration.
Keywords: Radiogenic heat production; Gamma spectrometry; Thermal model; Himalaya; Karakoram; Pakistan; Remote sensing; Granitoids; Geothermal characterization; Hydrothermal alteration